conventions

The term "convention" can have both a general and a specific meaning.

a) The term "convention" in a general sense: Article 38(1)(a) refers to "international conventions, both general and special" as sources of law other than customary international rules and general principles of international law, and as a secondary source the court decisions and doctrines of the most qualified specialists in public law are named. In this common usage, the term "convention" includes all international agreements in the same way that the general term "treaty" does. Generally recognized principles and rules of law are also traditionally referred to as "convention law" to distinguish them from other sources of international law such as customary law and general principles of international law. Thus, the general term "convention" is synonymous with the general term "treaty".

b) Convention as a technical term: while in the last century the term “convention” was traditionally used to refer to bilateral agreements, it is now generally used to refer to formal multilateral treaties involving a large number of parties. Conventions are generally open to the participation of the international community as a whole or a large number of States. Usually, instruments negotiated under the auspices of international organizations are referred to as “conventions” (eg 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity, 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties). The same applies to documents adopted by a body of an international organization (for example, the ILO Convention on Equal Remuneration for Men and Women for Work of Equal Value, 1951, adopted by the International Labor Conference, or the Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations).

Charters

The term "charter" (or "charter") is used to refer to especially official and solemn documents, such as the founding treaty of an international organization. The term itself has an emotional connotation that goes back to the Magna Carta of 1215. Notable contemporary examples include 1945 and the 1952 Charter of the Organization of American States.

Protocols

The term "protocol" is used to refer to agreements that are less formal than agreements called "treaties" or "conventions". This term could be used to refer to the following types of documents:

a) the signing protocol is a subsidiary document in relation to the contract, drawn up by the same parties. Such a protocol deals with ancillary issues such as the interpretation of certain provisions of the treaty, official provisions that were not included in the treaty, or the resolution of technical issues. Ratification of a treaty will usually ipso facto include the ratification of such a protocol.

b) An optional protocol to a treaty is a document that provides for additional rights and obligations in relation to the treaty. It is usually adopted on the same day, but is independent and subject to separate ratification. Such protocols allow some parties to the treaty to establish in their relations such a binding mechanism that goes beyond the framework of the general treaty and is not accepted by all of its participants, resulting in the creation of a "two-stage system". A famous example is the 1966 Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

c) A protocol based on a framework treaty is an instrument containing specific substantive obligations that is intended to achieve the general objectives of an earlier framework or umbrella convention. Such protocols provide for a simplified and accelerated process for concluding a contract and are especially popular in the field of international environmental law. An example is the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987, adopted on the basis of Articles 2 and 8 of the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer.

d) An amending protocol is a document containing provisions that amend one or more prior treaties, such as .

e) A protocol as a supplementary treaty is an instrument that contains additional provisions to a previous treaty, such as the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees.

f) The Protocol (Proces-Verbal) is a document that consolidates certain agreements reached by the contracting parties.

Declarations

The term "declaration" is used to refer to various international documents. However, declarations are not in all cases legally binding. This term is often deliberately chosen to show that the parties are not going to establish legally binding obligations, but only want to declare certain aspirations. An example is the 1992 Rio Declaration. At the same time, declarations can also be treaties in the general sense of the word, which must be binding under international law. In this respect, it must be determined on a case-by-case basis whether the parties intended to establish legally binding obligations. Figuring out the intentions of the parties can often be a difficult task. Some instruments, titled "declarations", were originally intended to be non-binding, but later their provisions could become a reflection of customary international law or become binding as a rule of customary law. This happened with the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Declarations that should be binding can be classified as follows:

a) the declaration can be a contract in the proper sense of the word. A case in point is the 1984 United Kingdom-China Joint Declaration on Hong Kong;

b) an interpretative declaration is a document that is attached to a treaty for the purpose of interpreting or clarifying its provisions;

c) a declaration can also be called an informal agreement on some unimportant issue;

d) a number of unilateral declarations (statements) may constitute binding agreements. A typical example is declarations (statements) under an optional provision that create a legal bond between the parties making them, although they are not directly addressed to each other. Another example is Egypt's 1957 unilateral Declaration on the Suez Canal and its modalities, which was seen as an international commitment.

International law provides for a large number of types of official papers. One of them is called the convention.

A convention is an international treaty on a specific subject that is binding on states that accede to it or sign it. It is recognized and signed simultaneously by several states. Consequently, compliance with certain rules and agreements on the scale of many states at once is ensured.

The Convention is the source of international law.

Agreement examples

Depending on the meaning and theme, the convention can be classified into different areas:

• political relationships;
• legal relationships;
• socio-economic relations, etc.

The most common international conventions on the following issues:

• International Humanitarian Law (Geneva);
• refugee status;
• elimination of racial discrimination;
• diplomatic relations (Vienna);
• international treaties (Vienna);
• on human rights (European);
• about customs, etc.

However, the International Convention on the Rights of the Child, which was signed on November 20, 1989, is considered much more often than others in the media. This title document regulates the rights of persons aged 0 to 18 years in the countries that have signed the obligation (at the present stage, more than 150 states, including Russia). The Agreement on the Rights of the Child includes 54 articles. The next most popular are the International Customs Conventions.

Sources of law

Each type of law has its own source. The latter may be an agreement and a custom of international significance. However, there are also such documents as documents of interstate organizations, acts of conferences and meetings at the international level. But they can be a source of international law only when they define binding rules for interstate organizations and other subjects of such legislation. Additionally, in international law there is an idea of ​​the so-called soft law, which includes documents with a recommendatory nature or program requirements of interstate bodies and organizations, for example, a resolution of the UN General Assembly, etc.

Article 38 of the Charter of the International Court of Justice offers a specific list of sources. The court is guided by them in resolving various contentious issues. The list is as follows:

• international custom;
• the general principles of law which are recognized by civilized nations;
• court verdict;
• doctrines of international specialists used as additional methods for determining the rules of law.

About diplomatic relations

Vienna Convention 1961 - an agreement on diplomatic relations, which codifies the rules of law for the activities of diplomatic missions. On April 18, 1961, it was signed. As of January 1, 1970, one hundred and five countries (including the Soviet Union) are participating parties. It defines:

• order of diplomatic relations;
• diplomatic institutions;
• their functions;
• rules for the appointment and recall of the head of the diplomatic mission and the staff of these institutions.

The Convention defines the privileges and protection of diplomatic missions as a whole and each one individually. The main privileges include:

• the inviolability of the premises;
• freedom of relations with one's country;
• inviolability of diplomatic mail and more.

Staff and their families also have the right to inviolability, both in respect of the person and their housing, protection from the jurisdiction of the country where they reside. Personnel have the right to enjoy the protection of acts that are committed at the time of the performance of their official duties, and are exempt from payroll tax.

The Convention entered into force for the Soviet Union on April 24, 1964.

About civil liability

The 1963 Vienna Convention is an agreement on civil liability for damages. She was accepted at the international conference of diplomats (29.04-19.05.1963). The text and protocol regarding the settlement of contradictions were signed on May 21, 1963. On October 1, 1969, only eight states approved it. The Soviet Union signed the final act.

Due to the fact that nuclear industrial facilities are a source of increased danger, the agreement assumes full liability for nuclear damage. There is only one exception: the owner of the object is exempt from compensation for damage when there was a natural disaster or a special nature of what happened (military operations, etc.).

In the event of nuclear damage, claims for compensation are subject to consideration only in the state within which the nuclear incident occurred.

About consular relations

The 1963 Vienna Convention is an agreement on consular relations, which determines the order of such relations and the protection of their establishments, as well as the tasks, benefits and protection of the latter. It was signed on April 24, 1963 and entered into force on March 19, 1967. It establishes the classes of heads of consular posts; the rules for their appointment and admission to duty in the country in which they reside, as well as the rules for the selection of personnel. On January 1, 1970, sixty-five states were parties to this convention. In accordance with it, the consular office is granted certain advantages, privileges and protections. Exceptions are natural disasters, in which case local authorities may enter the premises.
The consular person is endowed with personal immunity, but may be detained or arrested by a court verdict when they have committed a crime; personnel are protected from the jurisdiction of judicial and administrative authorities at the time of the performance of their functions, exempted from registration as a foreigner, obtaining residence and work permits, and from paying taxes. The consular person has the right to freely have relations with his citizens who are in this country, and the local authorities are obliged to notify them of the arrest, the consuls can correspond with them and pay a visit in accordance with local laws. The Convention also defines the rights and duties of honorary consuls.

About road safety

The Vienna Convention on Road Traffic is an international treaty signed to enhance traffic safety by standardizing traffic rules. It originated at a UNESCO conference in the period from 7.10 to 8.11.1968 in Vienna. Together with him, the convention on road signs and signals was approved. Later, on May 1, 1971, the agreement was amended at a regular meeting in Geneva.

The participating countries that have approved this agreement recognize the driver's license of the Russian Federation, which makes it possible to leave these and not acquire international ones. On March 28, 2006, the form of the certificate, which was recognized in other states, has undergone changes. Member States were given a five-year timeframe to bring their certificates into line with the new format. Driving licenses, which were issued in the Russian Federation from March 1, 2011, comply with the new rules. Previously received plastic certificates are also valid until the expiration date.

On the norm of international treaties

The 1969 International Convention in Vienna is an agreement that codifies the norms of international treaties. It entered into force in 1980 and has over 110 participating countries. This agreement establishes the rules for the formation, existence and termination of international treaties between countries. Additionally, it states that it may be applicable to every treaty that is a constituent instrument of an international organization and that is adopted within the framework of an international organization.

The agreement defines the following requirements:

• the procedure for drawing up and entry into force of contracts;
• their significance for third countries;
• rules for amendments and changes;
• conditions that imply the loss of force of the treaty if it contradicts the norm of international law;
• conditions of invalidity;
• resolution of disputes when an agreement is terminated by one party, etc.

The Russian Federation is a party to the 1969 Vienna Convention.

International Convention on the Rights of the Child

The most popular for discussion in society are the International Conventions on the Rights of the Child, which oblige the states that have approved them to take all measures to ensure and protect the powers of persons under 18 years of age. This document is called the world constitution of children's rights. The international legal convention contains a section that defines how states should take measures to respect the rights of small citizens. It is based on a new presentation of the position of the child in society as an equal participant.

The text can be divided into three parts: art. 1-41 - the main ones, establish the powers of the child and the obligations of the participating countries, art. 42-45 - monitoring the implementation of the Convention, Art. 46-54 - minor conditions that regulate the procedure for the entry into force of the Convention.

It is based on three main rights:

1. Protection.
2. Security.
3. Participation.

An important aspect of this document is the definition of a child as a human being under the age of eighteen. Children of any race, sex, language, color, political or other opinion, property, physical condition, their parents or guardians have the same rights as everyone else, namely: to health, education, good nutrition, priority attention to physical and mental development.

There are nine main international human rights conventions, and each of them has been approved by a certain committee of experts who monitor compliance with the requirements of the treaties by the participating countries. Some of them are supplemented by optional protocols that deal with specific problems.

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Translation of "umbrella agreement" in Chinese

View examples with translation umbrella agreement
(11 examples containing translation)

" lang="en"> umbrella agreement

Other translations

The United Nations Secretariat also signed umbrella agreement with SITA, a non-profit organization dedicated to providing telecommunications services to airlines.

The United Nations Secretariat also signed the umbrella agreement with SITA, a not-for-profit organization that provides telecommunications to airlines.

Umbrella agreement with SITA, a not-for-profit organization that provides telecommunications to airlines.">

The agreement as a whole, including umbrella agreement and applications, is accepted as one package of documents, while the individual parts of the package are inseparable from each other.

The entire agreement, including the umbrella agreement and annexes, is adopted as a package and the individual parts of the package are not severable from one another.

Umbrella agreement and annexes, is adopted as a package and the individual parts of the package are not severable from one another.">

As long as the US government continues to seek illegal access to European data, instead of fully fulfilling its obligations, it will be difficult for the European Parliament to approve Umbrella Agreement.

As long as the US government continues to seek illicit access to European data, instead of fully implementing its commitments, it will be difficult for the European Parliament to consent to the Umbrella Agreement .

Umbrella Agreement.">

"umbrella agreement which UNOPS signed with UNDP is also a step forward as it clarifies the cooperative relationship that exists between the two organizations.

The umbrella agreement that UNOPS has signed with UNDP also represents a step forward, in that it clarifies the working relationship that the two organizations have with each other.

Umbrella agreement that UNOPS has signed with UNDP also represents a step forward, in that it clarifies the working relationship that the two organizations have with each other.">

We must take advantage of opportunities such as Umbrella Agreement to reaffirm the importance of cross-border data flows, establish clear mechanisms for transatlantic cooperation, and identify appropriate safeguards and legal channels to ensure that European citizens respect the privacy of personal data.

We must use opportunities like the Umbrella Agreement to reaffirm the importance of cross-border data flows, establish clear mechanisms for transatlantic cooperation, and set appropriate safeguards and legal channels to ensure that the privacy of European citizens is respected.

Umbrella Agreement to reaffirm the importance of cross-border data flows, establish clear mechanisms for transatlantic cooperation, and set appropriate safeguards and legal channels to ensure that the privacy of European citizens is respected.">

Decree approving umbrella agreement between Egypt, the European Union and the European Investment Bank (jointly and individually as European Development Partners) regarding a joint development program aimed at assisting in financing a package of projects for Egypt covering all areas of development;

Decree approving an umbrella agreement between Egypt, the European Union and the European Investment Bank (jointly and individually as European development partners) concerning a joint development program to assist in funding a package of projects for Egypt, covering all fields of development;

An umbrella agreement between Egypt, the European Union and the European Investment Bank (jointly and individually as European development partners) concerning a joint development program to assist in funding a package of projects for Egypt, covering all fields of development;">

The international ozone agreements (Vienna Convention of 1985 and the Montreal Protocol thereto) were the first agreements in the field of ecology dedicated to solving long-term deferred problems (when the impact on the environment occurs today, and the main damage from it may appear decades and even centuries later). Not a single country or group of countries was able to solve the problem of preventing the depletion of the ozone layer, which predetermined the participation of almost all nations in the elimination of this common threat. In developing the ozone agreements, experts and policy makers have been guided by the need to make them flexible and adaptable to the results of new scientific research and assessments.

The first steps to protect the ozone layer were taken several years before reliable scientific knowledge about the impact of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) on stratospheric ozone was available.

• In 1974, the first articles appeared explaining the mechanism of the influence of these substances on the ozone layer. It was from this year that, under the influence of active speeches by environmentalists against the use of aerosol packages containing chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as a propellant, the production of ODS began to be curtailed.
• In 1978, the production of aerosol cans using CFCs was banned in the United States. As a result, production of halon 11 and halon 12 in the United States decreased from 46% of the world level to 28% by 1985. Canada, Sweden and Norway joined these measures.
• Since 1982, due to the expansion of other applications of CFCs, their world production began to grow again. The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) developed the World Plan of Action for the Ozone Layer and in 1981 a group of experts began to formulate a global framework convention for the protection of the ozone layer.
• On March 22, 1985, at a meeting in Vienna, two months before the publication of reports about the “ozone hole” discovered over Antarctica, as a result of intense international negotiations, the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was adopted. The States (Parties) that have signed and ratified this document have committed themselves to cooperate in research and scientific assessment of the state of the ozone layer, to exchange relevant information and to take “appropriate measures” to prevent activities that potentially threaten the ozone layer.

Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

Preamble

Parties to this Convention,

Conscious of the potentially detrimental effects of changes in the state of the ozone layer on human health and the environment,

Recalling the relevant provisions of the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment and, in particular, principle 21, which provides that “in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, States have the sovereign right to develop their own resources in accordance with their policies in the field of the environment and are responsible for ensuring that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other states or areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction”,

Bearing in mind the circumstances and special needs of developing countries,

Bearing in mind the work and studies being carried out in both international and national organizations, and in particular the World Plan of Action on the Ozone Layer of the United Nations Environment Programme,

Mindful also of the precautionary measures already taken at the national and international levels to protect the ozone layer,

Conscious that measures to protect the ozone layer from changes due to human activities require international cooperation and action at the international level and should be based on appropriate scientific and technological considerations,

Mindful also of the need for further research and systematic observations to obtain additional scientific knowledge about the ozone layer and the possible adverse effects of its changing state,

Determined to protect human health and the environment from the adverse effects of changes in the state of the ozone layer,

agreed on the following:

Article 1. Definitions

In this Convention:

1. "Ozone layer" means the atmospheric ozone layer above the planet's boundary layer.

2. "Adverse impact" means changes in the physical environment or biota, including changes in climate, that have significant adverse effects on human health or on the composition, resilience or productivity of natural and managed ecosystems or on materials used by humans.

3. "Alternative technologies or equipment" means technologies or equipment, the use of which reduces or completely eliminates emissions of substances that have or can have an adverse effect on the ozone layer.

4. "Alternative substances" means substances that reduce, eliminate or prevent adverse effects on the ozone layer.

5. "Parties" in capital letters means, unless otherwise indicated in the text, the Parties to this Convention.

6. "Regional economic integration organization" means an organization constituted by the sovereign States of a given region, which is competent in matters governed by this Convention and its Protocols and duly authorized, in accordance with its internal procedures, to sign, ratify, accept, approve relevant documents or join them.

7. "Protocols" means the protocols of this Convention.

Article 2. General obligations

1. The Parties shall take appropriate measures, in accordance with the provisions of this Convention and those protocols in force to which they are parties, to protect human health and the environment from adverse effects that are or may be the result of human activities that alter or may alter the state of the ozone layer.

2. To this end, the Parties, in accordance with the means at their disposal and with their capabilities:

a(a) Collaborate through systematic observation, research and exchange of information in order to better understand and evaluate the impact of human activities on the ozone layer and the consequences of changes in the state of the ozone layer for human health and the environment;

b) take appropriate legislative or administrative measures and cooperate in agreeing on appropriate programmatic measures to control, restrict, reduce or prevent human activities under their jurisdiction or control, if these activities are found to have or may have an adverse effect, changing or creating an opportunity changes in the state of the ozone layer;

c a) cooperate in the development of agreed measures, procedures and standards for the implementation of this Convention with a view to adopting protocols and annexes;

d(c) cooperate with the competent international bodies for the effective implementation of this Convention and the protocols to which they are parties.

3. The provisions of this Convention shall in no way affect the right of the Parties to take, in accordance with international law, domestic measures in addition to those provided for in paragraphs 1 and 2 above; nor shall they affect additional domestic measures already taken by the Parties, provided that such measures are compatible with their obligations under this Convention.

4. The application of this article is based on relevant scientific and technical considerations.

Article 3 Research and systematic observations

1. The Parties undertake to organize studies and scientific assessments in an appropriate manner and to cooperate directly or through competent international bodies in their conduct on the following issues:

a) physical and chemical processes that can affect the ozone layer;

b) the impact on human health and other biological effects caused by changes in the state of the ozone layer, especially changes in solar ultraviolet radiation affecting living organisms (UV-B);

c) the impact of changes in the state of the ozone layer on climate;

d) the impact of any change in the state of the ozone layer and any subsequent change in UV-B radiation intensity on natural and man-made materials used by humans;

e) substances, work practices, processes and activities that can affect the ozone layer and their cumulative effects;

f) alternative substances and technologies;

g) relevant socio-economic issues;

and other matters detailed in Annexes I and II.

2. The Parties undertake themselves or through competent international bodies, with full regard to national legislation and such activities carried out both at the national and international levels, to promote or conduct joint or complementary programs of systematic observations of the state of the ozone layer and other relevant parameters, as provided in Annex I.

3. The Parties undertake to cooperate directly or through the competent international bodies in ensuring the collection, verification and regular timely transmission of research data through the relevant international data centers.

Article 4. Cooperation in the legal, scientific and technical fields

1. The Parties shall promote and encourage the exchange of scientific, technical, socio-economic, commercial and legal information relevant to this Convention, in accordance with the more detailed provisions contained in Annex II. Such information shall be provided to the authorities agreed upon by the Parties. Any such body receiving information that the supplying Party considers confidential shall ensure that such information is not disclosed and shall compile it in such a way as to preserve its confidential nature before it is made available to all Parties.

2. The Parties shall cooperate in accordance with their national laws, regulations and practices, and taking into account, in particular, the needs of developing countries to promote, directly or through competent international bodies, the development and transfer of technology and knowledge. Such cooperation is carried out, in particular, through:

a) facilitating the acquisition of alternative technologies by other Parties;

b) providing them with information on alternative technologies and equipment and related instructions or guidelines;

c) supply of the necessary equipment and apparatus for conducting research and systematic observations;

d) training of the necessary scientific and technical personnel.

Article 5. Transfer of information

The Parties, through the secretariat, shall communicate to the Conference of the Parties established under Article 6 information on the measures they are taking to implement this Convention and the protocols to which they are parties, in such form and at such intervals as shall be determined by the meetings of the Parties to the relevant treaty instruments.

Article 6 Conference of the Parties

1. A Conference of the Parties is hereby established. The first meeting of the Conference of the Parties shall be convened by the secretariat provisionally designated in accordance with Article 7 not later than one year after the entry into force of this Convention. Thereafter, ordinary meetings of the Conference of the Parties shall be convened at intervals to be determined by the Conference at its first meeting.

2. Extraordinary meetings of the Conference of the Parties shall be convened when the Conference deems it necessary, or at the written request of one of the Parties, provided that, within six months after its communication by the Secretariat to the Parties, this request is supported by at least one third of the Parties.

3. The Conference of the Parties shall, by consensus, agree on and adopt the rules of procedure and financial rules for itself and for any subsidiary bodies it may establish, as well as financial regulations governing the functioning of the secretariat.

4. The Conference of the Parties shall keep under constant review the implementation of this Convention and, in addition:

A(a) Establish the form and frequency of communication of information to be submitted in accordance with Article 5, and consider such information, as well as reports submitted by any subsidiary body;

b(a) reviews scientific information on the state of the ozone layer, on its possible change and on the possible consequences of any such change;

c(a) Promote, in accordance with Article 2, the harmonization of appropriate policies, strategies and measures to minimize the release of substances that cause or are likely to cause changes in the state of the ozone layer, and make recommendations on any other measures related to this Convention;

d(a) Adopt, in accordance with Articles 3 and 4, programs for research, systematic observation, scientific and technical cooperation, exchange of information and transfer of technology and knowledge;

e(d) consider and adopt, as necessary, amendments to this Convention or its annexes in accordance with Articles 9 and 10;

f(b) Consider amendments to any protocol, as well as any annexes thereto, and, if so decided, recommend to the parties to such protocols that they be accepted;

g(d) Consider and adopt additional annexes to this Convention, as necessary, in accordance with Article 10;

h(a) review and adopt protocols as necessary in accordance with Article 8;

i(d) Establish such subsidiary bodies as are deemed necessary for the implementation of this Convention;

j(a) enjoy, as appropriate, the services of competent international bodies and scientific committees, in particular the World Meteorological Organization and the World Health Organization, as well as the Coordinating Committee on the Ozone Layer, in the field of scientific research, systematic observations and other activities related to the objectives of this Convention, and appropriately uses information received from such bodies and committees;

k(b) Consider and take any additional measures that may be required to achieve the objectives of this Convention.

5. The United Nations, its specialized agencies and the International Atomic Energy Agency, as well as any State not a Party to this Convention, may be represented at meetings of the Conference of the Parties by observers. Any body or agency, national or international, governmental or non-governmental, with competence in fields related to the protection of the ozone layer, which has notified the secretariat of their desire to be represented at a meeting of the Conference of the Parties as observers, may be admitted to participate if This is accepted by at least one third of the Parties present at the meeting. The admission and participation of observers shall be governed by the rules of procedure adopted by the Conference of the Parties.

Article 7 Secretariat

1. The secretariat shall have the following functions:

a(a) the organization and servicing of meetings as provided for in Articles 6, 8, 9 and 10;

b(c) the preparation and transmission of reports based on information received under Articles 4 and 5, as well as on information received from meetings of the subsidiary bodies established under Article 6;

c) performance of the functions assigned to it by any protocols;

d(d) preparing reports on its activities in the performance of its functions under this Convention and submitting them to the Conference of the Parties;

e(c) ensuring the necessary coordination with other relevant international bodies and, in particular, the conclusion of such administrative and contractual arrangements as may be necessary for the effective performance of its functions;

f) performing such other functions as may be determined by the Conference of the Parties.

2. The functions of the secretariat will be performed temporarily by the United Nations Environment Program until the conclusion of the first ordinary meeting of the Conference of the Parties convened pursuant to Article 6. At its first ordinary meeting, the Conference of the Parties shall establish a secretariat from among those existing competent international organizations that have expressed their willingness to fulfill functions of the secretariat in accordance with this Convention.

Article 8 Adoption of protocols

1. The Conference of the Parties may adopt minutes at meetings in accordance with Article 2.

2. The text of any proposed protocol shall be communicated to the Parties by the secretariat at least six months in advance of such a meeting.

Article 9 Amendments to the Convention or Protocols

1. Any Party may propose amendments to this Convention or any protocol. Such amendments shall take due account, inter alia, of relevant scientific and technical considerations.

2. Amendments to this Convention shall be adopted at a meeting of the Conference of the Parties. Amendments to any protocol are adopted at the meeting of the Parties to the relevant protocol. The text of any proposed amendment to this Convention or to any protocol, unless otherwise provided in that protocol, shall be communicated by the secretariat to the Parties no later than six months before the meeting at which it is proposed to be adopted. The secretariat shall also communicate the text of the proposed amendments to the countries that have signed the Convention for their information.

3. The Parties shall make every effort to reach agreement on the adoption of any proposed amendment to this Convention by consensus. If all means to reach consensus have been exhausted and no agreement reached, then, as a last resort, the amendment shall be adopted by a three-fourths majority of the Parties to the Convention present at the meeting and voting and submitted by the Depositary to all Parties for ratification, approval or accession.

4. The procedure referred to in paragraph 3 above shall apply to amendments to any protocol unless a two-thirds majority of the Parties present at the meeting and voting to that protocol is sufficient for their adoption.

5. Written notices of ratification, approval or acceptance of amendments shall be sent to the depositary. Amendments adopted in accordance with paragraph 3 or 4 above shall enter into force for those Parties which have accepted them on the ninetieth day following the receipt by the Depositary of notification of their ratification, approval or acceptance by at least three-fourths of the Parties to this Convention or at least two third parties to this protocol, unless otherwise provided in this protocol. Thereafter, for any other Party, the amendments shall enter into force on the ninetieth day after that Party deposits its instrument of ratification, approval or acceptance of those amendments.

6. For the purposes of this Article, the term "Parties present and voting" means Parties present and casting an affirmative or negative vote.

Article 10 Adoption and amendment of annexes

1. The annexes to this Convention or to any protocol, respectively, form an integral part of this Convention or this protocol and, unless expressly provided otherwise, a reference to this Convention or its protocols constitutes at the same time a reference to any annexes to him. Such applications are limited to scientific, technical and administrative matters.

2. Unless a protocol otherwise provides for its annexes, the following procedure shall apply for the proposal, adoption and entry into force of additional annexes to this Convention or annexes to a protocol:

a(a) Annexes to this Convention shall be proposed and adopted in accordance with the procedure laid down in paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 9, and annexes to any protocol shall be proposed and adopted in accordance with the procedure laid down in paragraphs 2 and 4 of Article 9;

b(d) any party which does not consider it possible to approve an additional annex to this Convention, or an annex to any protocol to which it is a party, shall so notify the Depositary in writing within six months from the date on which the notification of acceptance is sent by the Depositary. The depositary shall promptly notify all Parties of any such notice received by it. A Party may at any time replace a previously submitted statement of objection with a statement of acceptance, after which the annexes shall enter into force for that Party.

c) six months after the date of circulation of the communication by the Depositary, the annex shall enter into force for all those Parties to this Convention or any of the relevant protocols that have not submitted notifications in accordance with the provisions of subparagraph ( b) higher.

3. The proposal, adoption and entry into force of amendments to annexes to this Convention or to any protocol shall be governed by a procedure similar to that established for the proposal, adoption and entry into force of annexes to the Convention or annexes to protocols. Annexes and their amendments shall take due account, inter alia, of relevant scientific and technical considerations.

4. Where an additional annex or an amendment to an annex relates to an amendment to this Convention or a protocol, that additional annex or annex, as amended, shall not enter into force until the amendment to this Convention or the relevant protocol enters into force.

Article 11 Settlement of disputes

1. In the event of a dispute between the Parties regarding the interpretation or application of this Convention, the parties concerned shall seek to resolve it through negotiations.

2. If the parties concerned cannot reach an agreement through negotiations, they may jointly seek the good offices of a third party or seek mediation.

3. Upon ratifying, accepting, approving or acceding to this Convention, or at any time thereafter, a State or regional economic integration organization may send to the Depositary a written declaration that, in respect of a dispute which has not been resolved in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 1 or paragraph 2 above, they accept one or both of the following means of dispute resolution as mandatory:

a(i) arbitration in accordance with procedures to be established by the Conference of the Parties at its first ordinary meeting;

b) referral of the dispute to the International Court of Justice.

4. If the parties have not accepted, in accordance with paragraph 3 above, the same or any of the procedures, then the dispute shall be settled by conciliation in accordance with paragraph 5 below, unless the parties agree otherwise.

5. At the request of one of the parties to the dispute, a conciliation commission is created. The Commission shall be composed of an equal number of members nominated by each interested party and a chairman chosen jointly by the members nominated by each party. The Commission makes a final decision, which has a recommendatory character, which the parties take into account in good faith.

6. The provisions of this article shall apply to any protocol unless otherwise provided in that protocol.

Article 12 Signature

1. This Convention shall be open for signature by States and regional economic integration organizations at the Federal Foreign Office of the Republic of Austria in Vienna from 22 March 1985 to 21 September 1985 and at United Nations Headquarters in New York from 22 September 1985 to 21 March 1986.

Article 13 Ratification, acceptance or approval

1. This Convention and any protocol shall be subject to ratification, acceptance or approval by States and regional economic integration organizations. Instruments of ratification, acceptance or approval shall be deposited with the Depositary.

2. Any organization referred to in paragraph 1 above which becomes a Party to the Convention or any protocol without any of its member States being such a Party shall be bound by all the obligations under the Convention or the protocol as appropriate. In the event that one or more member States of such an organization are Parties to the Convention or the relevant protocol, that organization and its member States shall decide on their respective responsibilities for the fulfillment of their obligations under the Convention or the protocol, respectively. In such cases, the organization and the member states cannot exercise in parallel the rights arising from the Convention or the relevant protocol.

3. In their instruments of ratification, acceptance or approval, the organizations referred to in paragraph 1 above shall declare the extent of their competence in matters governed by the Convention or the relevant protocol. These organizations shall also notify the Depositary of any material change in the extent of their competence.

Article 14 Accession

1. This Convention and any protocol shall be open for accession by States and regional economic integration organizations from the date of termination of signature of the Convention or the relevant protocol. Accession documents shall be deposited with the Depository.

2. In their instruments of accession, the organizations referred to in paragraph 1 above shall declare the extent of their competence in matters governed by the Convention or the relevant protocol. These organizations shall also notify the Depositary of any material change in the extent of their competence.

3. The provisions of paragraph 2 of Article 13 shall apply to regional economic integration organizations that accede to this Convention or any protocol.

Article 15. Right to vote

1. Each Party to the Convention or any protocol shall have one vote.

2. Except as provided in paragraph 1 above, regional economic integration organizations, in matters within their competence, shall exercise their right to vote with a number of votes equal to the number of their member States that are Parties to the Convention or to the relevant protocol. Said organizations lose their right to vote if their member states exercise their right to vote and vice versa.

Article 16 Relationship between the Convention and its Protocols

1. A State or a regional economic integration organization may become a party to a protocol only if it is, or becomes, at the same time, a Party to the Convention.

2. Decisions relating to any protocol are made only by the parties to the relevant protocol.

Article 17 Entry into force

1. This Convention shall enter into force on the ninetieth day after the date of the deposit of the twentieth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.

2. Any protocol, unless otherwise provided in that protocol, shall enter into force on the ninetieth day after the date of deposit of the eleventh instrument of ratification, acceptance or approval of, or accession to, that protocol.

3. For each Party which ratifies, accepts or approves or accedes to this Convention after the twentieth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession has been deposited, the Convention shall enter into force on the ninetieth day after such Party has deposited its instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.

4. Any protocol, unless otherwise provided in such protocol, shall enter into force for a party which ratifies, accepts or approves or accedes to that protocol after it has entered into force pursuant to paragraph 2 above, on the ninetieth day after the date of the deposit of this party of its instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, or on the date on which the Convention enters into force for that Party, whichever is later.

5. For the purposes of paragraphs 1 and 2 above, any instrument deposited by a regional economic integration organization shall not be considered as additional to those deposited by member States of such organization.

Article 18 Reservations

No reservations to this Convention shall be permitted.

Article 19. Exit

1. At any time after four years from the date on which this Convention has entered into force for a given Party, that Party may withdraw from the Convention by giving written notification to the Depositary.

2. Except as otherwise provided in any protocol, at any time after four years from the date such protocol enters into force for a given party, that party may withdraw from the protocol by written notice to the Depositary.

3. Any such withdrawal shall take effect one year after the date of receipt of the notice by the Depositary, or such later date as may be specified in the notice of withdrawal.

4. Any Party which withdraws from this Convention shall also be deemed to have withdrawn from any protocol to which it is a party.

Article 20. Depository

1. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall serve as the Depositary of this Convention and any protocols.

2. The depositary shall inform the Parties, in particular, about:

a(a) signing this Convention and any protocol and depositing instruments of ratification, acceptance or approval or accession in accordance with Articles 13 and 14;

b(a) the date of entry into force of the Convention and any protocol in accordance with Article 17;

c a) notifications of withdrawal made in accordance with Article 19;

d(a) amendments to the Convention and any protocol adopted, their acceptance by the parties and the dates of their entry into force in accordance with Article 9;

e- all communications concerning the adoption and approval of annexes and amendments thereto in accordance with Article 10;

f(b) notifications to regional economic integration organizations of the extent of their competence in matters governed by this Convention and any protocols and amendments thereto;

g) declarations made in accordance with Article 11, paragraph 3.

Article 21. Authentic texts

The original text of this Convention, of which the Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish versions are equally authentic, shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, being duly authorized thereto, have signed this Convention.

DONE at Vienna this 22nd day of March 1985.

Annex I

Research and systematic observations

1. The Parties to the Convention recognize that the main scientific issues are:

a(a) Changes in the ozone layer, which may result in changes in the intensity of solar ultraviolet radiation affecting living organisms (UV-B) reaching the Earth's surface, and possible consequences for human health, organisms, ecosystems and materials used by humans;

b) change in the vertical profile of ozone, which can disrupt the temperature structure of the atmosphere, and the possible effects on weather and climate.

2. The Parties to the Convention, in accordance with Article 3, shall cooperate in conducting research and systematic observations and formulating recommendations for further research and observations in such areas as:

a) Atmospheric physics and chemistry research

(i) Integrated theoretical modeling: further development of models considering the interaction of radiative, dynamic and chemical processes; study of the simultaneous impact on atmospheric ozone of various man-made and natural substances; interpretation of data from telemetry measurements received from satellites and ground-based installations; assessment of the dynamics of atmospheric and geophysical parameters and development of methods for determining the causes of changes in these parameters;

(ii) Laboratory measurements of change factors, absorption cross sections, and interaction mechanisms between tropospheric and stratospheric chemical and photochemical processes; spectroscopy data to support field measurements in all relevant parts of the spectrum;

(iii) Field measurements: study of concentrations and fluxes of major source gases, both natural and anthropogenic; study of atmospheric dynamics; simultaneous measurements of photochemical related objects of study above the boundary of the earth's atmosphere using sensors insitu and remote sensors; comparison of data obtained at different points and by different instruments, including coordination and unification of the nomenclature of measurements for satellite equipment; obtaining three-dimensional images of the main trace atmospheric impurities, the spectral flux of solar radiation and meteorological parameters;

(iv) Development of instruments, including satellite and non-satellite sensors for measuring trace atmospheric contaminants, solar radiation flux and meteorological parameters;

b) Study of the impact of ozone layer change on human health, biosphere and photodegradation processes

(i) Relationship between visible and ultraviolet human solar exposure A) with the development of both non-melanoma and melanoma skin cancers and b) impact on the immunological system;

ii) exposure to UV-B radiation as a function of wavelength A) on crops, forests and other terrestrial ecosystems and b) on the food web of aquatic ecosystems and fisheries, as well as the possible inhibition of oxygen release by marine phytoplankton;

iii) the mechanisms by which biological agents, species and ecosystems are affected by UV-B radiation, including the relationship between dose, dose rate and response; photoreparation, adaptation and protection;

iv) identifying the possible interaction of zones with different wavelengths by studying the biological action spectra and the spectral response to polychromatic irradiation;

(v) Effects of UV-B radiation on the sensitivity and activity of species that play an important role in the balance of the biosphere; on such primary natural processes as photosynthesis and biosynthesis;

(vi) Effects of UV-B radiation on photodegradation of pollutants, agricultural chemicals and other materials;

c) Climate Impact Study

(i) Theoretical study and observation of the radiative effects of ozone and other trace elements and the effects on climatic parameters such as land and ocean surface temperatures, precipitation patterns, troposphere-stratosphere exchange;

ii) study of the impact of such climate change on various human activities;

d) Systematic observations for:

(i) The state of the ozone layer (spatial and temporal variability in total ozone and vertical profile) through the eventual implementation of a global ozone observing system based on the integration of satellite and terrestrial observing systems;

ii) tropospheric and stratospheric concentrations of source gases for their content of HO x , NO x and CIO x , as well as carbonaceous compounds;

iii) temperature from the earth's surface to the mesosphere using both terrestrial and satellite systems;

iv) the wave composition of the solar radiation flux reaching the earth's atmosphere and behind the thermal radiation leaving it, using satellite data;

v) wave composition of the solar radiation flux reaching the earth's surface in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum and affecting living organisms (UV-B);

vi) properties and distribution of aerosols in the layer from the earth's surface to the mesosphere using ground-based, aircraft and satellite observation systems;

(vii) Variables of great importance for climatology through the implementation of high quality meteorological surface measurement programmes;

viii) trace elements, temperature, solar flux and aerosols, using improved methods of global data analysis.

3. The Parties to the Convention shall cooperate in promoting adequate scientific and technical training necessary for participation in the studies and systematic observations referred to in this annex, taking into account the special needs of developing countries. Particular attention should be paid to the cross-calibration of instruments and the harmonization of observation methods in order to compile comparable or systematized scientific data series.

4. The following chemicals, of natural or anthropogenic origin, which are listed in no particular order, are believed to be capable of altering the chemical and physical properties of the ozone layer.

a) carbonaceous matter

i) Carbon monoxide (CO). Carbon monoxide has important natural and anthropogenic sources and is believed to play a significant direct role in tropospheric photochemistry and an indirect role in stratosphere photochemistry.

ii) Carbon dioxide (CO 2). Carbon dioxide has important natural and anthropogenic sources and affects stratospheric ozone by affecting the thermal structure of the atmosphere.

iii) Methane (CH 4). Methane has both natural and anthropogenic sources and affects both tropospheric and stratospheric ozone.

iv) Non-methane types of hydrocarbons. Non-methane hydrocarbon species are composed of a large number of chemicals, have both natural and anthropogenic sources, and play a direct role in the photochemical processes of the troposphere and an indirect role in the photochemical processes of the stratosphere.

b) Nitrogenous substances

i) Nitrous oxide (N 2 O). The predominant sources of N 2 O are natural in nature, but their anthropogenic influence is becoming increasingly important. Nitrous oxide is the main source of stratospheric NO x , which plays a key role in regulating the amount of stratospheric ozone;

ii) Nitrogen oxides (NOx). Terrestrial sources of NOx play an important direct role only in the photochemical processes of the troposphere, and an indirect role in the photochemistry of the stratosphere, and the input of NOx near the tropopause can directly lead to ozone changes in the upper troposphere and in the stratosphere.

c) Chlorides

i) Fully halogenated alkanes, such as CCl 4 , CFCl 3 (CFC-11), CF 2 Cl 2 (CFC-12), C 2 F 3 Cl 3 (CFC-113), C 2 F 4 Cl 2 (CFC-114). Fully halogenated alkanes are anthropogenic and act as a source of ClO x , which plays a key role in ozone photochemistry, mainly at altitudes of 30–50 km.

ii) Partially halogenated alkanes, e.g. CH 3 Cl, CHF 2 Cl (CFC-22), CH 3 CCl 3 , CHFCl 2 (CFC-21). The sources of CH 3 Cl are natural, while the other partially halogenated alkanes mentioned above are of anthropogenic origin. These gases also act as a source of stratospheric ClO x .

d) Bromides

Fully halogenated alkanes, such as CF 3 Br. These gases are anthropogenic and act as a source of BrO x , whose action is similar to that of C1O x .

e) Hydrogen substances

i) Hydrogen (H 2). Hydrogen, the source of which is natural and anthropogenic, plays a minor role in the photochemistry of the stratosphere.

ii) Water (H2O). Water, the source of which is natural, plays a very important role in both tropospheric and stratospheric photochemistry. Local sources of water vapor in the stratosphere are the oxidation of methane and, to a lesser extent, hydrogen.

Appendix II

Information exchange

1. The Parties to the Convention recognize that the collection and exchange of information is an important means of achieving the objectives of this Convention and a guarantee that any action that may be taken will be appropriate and fair. Therefore, the Parties will exchange scientific, technical, socio-economic, business, commercial and legal information.

2. Parties to the Convention, when deciding what information to collect and share, should take into account the usefulness of the information and the cost of obtaining it. The Parties further acknowledge that the cooperation referred to in this annex should be consistent with national laws, regulations and practices relating to patents, trade secrets and the protection of confidential and proprietary information.

3. scientific information

It includes information:

a) on scientific research planned and carried out on a public or private basis, with a view to facilitating the coordination of research programs and thus the most efficient use of available national and international resources;

b) emission data required for research;

c) on scientific results published in the specialized scientific literature on the physics and chemistry of the earth's atmosphere and its sensitivity to changes, and especially on the state of the ozone layer and the consequences for human health, the environment and climate of changes in the total content or vertical profile of ozone in any scale time;

d) about the evaluation of the results of scientific research and recommendations for future research.

4. Technical information

It includes information:

a(c) the availability and cost of chemical substitutes and alternative technologies that would reduce emissions of ozone-altering substances, and related planned or ongoing research;

b) about the limitations and possible risks associated with the use of chemical and other substitutes and alternative technologies.

5. Socio-economic and commercial information on substances mentioned in Annex I

It includes information:

a) on production and production capacity;

b) about the use and trends in the use of products;

c) about import/export;

d) on the costs, risks and benefits of those human activities that can indirectly cause changes in the ozone layer, and on the impact of existing or planned control measures for these activities.

6. legal information

It includes information:

a(a) national laws, administrative measures and legal studies relating to the protection of the ozone layer;

b) on international agreements, including bilateral agreements, concerning the protection of the ozone layer;

c) on the methods and conditions for licensing and the availability of patents related to the protection of the ozone layer.

In Europe, such air pollution was first considered in the 1979 Geneva Convention (Multi-State Atmospheric Pollution Convention). However, it was a framework convention whose deliberately modest objectives included "the control and, if possible, the gradual reduction and prevention of air pollution, including air pollution on a scale of several states." Significant progress in regulating the release of certain substances into the atmosphere was achieved only with the signing of protocols, of which there are currently four. The 1984 Geneva Protocol (Geneva Protocol on the Long-term Financing of a Cooperation Program for the Observation and Assessment of the Long-Range Transport of Pollutants in the Atmosphere of Europe) initiated the creation of a network of air quality monitoring stations. The 1985 Helsinki Protocol (On the Reduction of Sulfur Emissions) decided to reduce sulfur emissions to the atmosphere by 30% by 1993. The 1988 Sofia Protocol (On the control of carbon monoxide emissions or their movement across national borders), now superseded The Second Protocol on Sulfur (Oslo, 1994), provided for by 1994 the freezing of emissions of carbon oxides in individual states at the levels of 1987. The Geneva Protocol of 1991 (On the control of emissions of volatile organic compounds or their movement across state borders) contained a number of decisions to reduce the levels of emissions of volatile organic compounds.

International consequences of nuclear accidents
The attention of the whole world was drawn to the international consequences of nuclear accidents after the Chernobyl accident in 1986. But even earlier, a number of conventions dealt with issues related to the danger of nuclear equipment. These are, for example, the 1961 Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy (1960) and the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Related to Nuclear Energy (1963). The 1963 Agreement on the Prohibition of Air, Space and Underwater Tests of Nuclear Weapons should also be noted. The 1980 Vienna Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material attempted to set standards for the protection of nuclear materials from a range of hazards, including terrorism. On the eve of Chernobyl, in 1986, two more conventions were adopted: on early warning of accidents (Vienna Convention on Early Warning of a Nuclear Accident) and on international cooperation in the event of such accidents (Vienna Convention on Assistance in the Event of a Nuclear or Radiological Accident).

Ozone layer protection
The 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer imposes the following general obligations on each member “in accordance with the means and capabilities at their disposal”:

(a) Collaborate through systematic observation, research and exchange of information to better understand and evaluate the impact of human activity on the ozone layer, as well as the impact of changes in the ozone layer on human health and the natural environment;
b) the adoption of appropriate legislative or administrative measures and cooperation in the harmonization of relevant measures to control, limit, reduce or prevent human activities under the jurisdiction or control of the parties to the convention, if it is found that these activities have or may have an adverse effect as a result of a change or possible change in the ozone layer;
c) cooperation in formulating agreed measures, procedures and standards for the purpose of signing protocols and additions to implement the provisions of the convention;
d) cooperation with competent international organizations in order to successfully implement the conventions and protocols signed by them.

The Vienna Convention was supplemented in 1987 by the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, which in turn was amended and supplemented at the London meeting in 1990 and then at the Copenhagen meeting in November 1992. Article 2 of the protocol requires parties to take control of ozone depleting chemicals such as CFCs, halons, other fully halogenated CFCs, carbon tetrachloride and 1,1,1-trichloroethane (methyl chloroform).

Article 5 provides an exemption to the limitation of emissions for certain developing countries “for the purpose of meeting (their) basic domestic needs” for up to ten years, subject to the conditions set out in Article 5(2)(3). The protocol also provides for technical and financial assistance to developing country parties to the convention claiming benefits under Article 5. An agreement was reached to establish a Multilateral Fund to assist such parties in research and in fulfilling their obligations (Article 10). In November 1992 in Copenhagen, in the light of the scientific assessment of ozone depletion carried out in 1991, which found new evidence of ozone depletion in the middle and high latitudes in both hemispheres, an agreement was reached on new measures, of course, in accordance with the general mode described above. Deferrals under Article 5 remain possible for developing countries. All participants were required to stop using halons by 1994, and CFCs, HBFCs, carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform by 1996. HCFCs should be frozen at 1996 levels, reduced by 90% by 2015 and completely phased out by 2030. Methyl bromide, still used as a preservative for fruits and grains, has become the subject of voluntary control. The parties agreed to “make every effort” to freeze its use at 1991 levels by 1995. The overall goal was to stabilize the atmospheric chlorine content by 2000, and then reduce it below critical levels by about 2060.

Transportation of hazardous waste across national borders
Following a series of notorious incidents in which shipments of hazardous wastes from developed countries were discovered in uncontrolled and hazardous conditions in developing countries, the transport of hazardous wastes across national borders became subject to international regulation: in 1989, the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their removal (see also Kummer 1992). This convention is based on the principle that the transport of such wastes can take place only after prior information and consent at the interstate level. However, the Organization of African Unity went even further. In its 1991 Bamako Convention on the Prohibition of the Importation of Hazardous Wastes into Africa and the Control of Their Transport across State Frontiers and Their Disposition on the African Continent, the OAU seeks to completely ban the importation of hazardous wastes into Africa.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in an interstate context
The 1991 Espoo Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in an Interstate Context establishes a framework for relations between neighboring countries. It expands on the concept of environmental impact assessment, which until then had been developed exclusively in the context of national planning laws and procedures. For the first time, the international implications of development projects and related procedures and decisions are beginning to be considered.

1992 convention and post-Rio conventions
The UN Convention on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro has led to the emergence of a large number of global and regional environmental conventions (or was concluded simultaneously with them). In its spirit, the most important declaration of principles for future development (Declaration on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro) was drawn up. In addition to the two conventions concluded in Rio de Janeiro - the Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity - other environmental conventions were signed in 1992. They concerned the regulation of international rivers, as well as the international consequences of industrial accidents. At the regional level, the Helsinki Convention on the Protection and Use of the Environment in the Baltic Region (for text and analysis see Ehlers 1993) and the Bucharest Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea from Pollution emerged in 1992. Also noteworthy are the 1993 Ministerial Declaration on the Protection of the Black Sea, drawn up in the spirit of a preventive and holistic approach, and the Paris Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment in the North-East Atlantic (for text and analysis, see Hey, IJIstra and Nollkaemper 1993).

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The UNFCCC, signed in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 by some 155 countries, roughly follows the pattern of the 1985 Vienna Convention. True to its name, it creates a framework within which more specific commitments must be negotiated in detailed protocols. The main objective of the Convention is to achieve stabilization of the concentration of gases that create a greenhouse effect in the atmosphere at such a level as to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system ... in a timeframe sufficient for the natural adaptation of ecosystems to climate change, eliminating the risk to food production and ensuring sustainability economic development. (Article 2)

All parties to the convention, in accordance with Article 4, have two main tasks: (a) to develop, periodically update, publish and make available to the public a national list of anthropogenic emissions and their sources for all gases that create a greenhouse effect, as well as volumes and sinks of sinks of such gases using comparable methods (which have yet to be agreed) and (b) formulate, implement, publish and regularly update national and regional climate change mitigation programs by targeting anthropogenic emissions and removals of greenhouse gases and mitigation programs adequate adaptation to climate change. In addition to this, the participants - developed countries assume a number of general obligations, which will be specified in specialized protocols.

These obligations include, for example:

· development of advanced technologies and cooperation in this area;

· control, prevention or reduction of anthropogenic emissions of gases that create the greenhouse effect;

· measures for sustainable development, conservation and support of natural reservoirs, including biomass, forests, oceans and other ecosystems on land, seas and coastal zones;

· cooperation in adapting to the effects of climate change through the development of plans for integrated management of coastal zones, plans for water resources and agriculture, as well as plans for the protection and restoration of areas affected by floods and other climatic disasters;

· expanding cooperation in the exchange of scientific, technological, socio-economic and legal information related to climate, climate change and strategies to respond to it;

· Expansion of cooperation in the field of appropriate education, training and public awareness.

Convention on Biological Diversity
The objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity, also adopted in 1992 at the UNCED in Rio de Janeiro, are to conserve biological diversity, wisely use its components and equitably share the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources (Article 1) (for useful criticism see Boyle 1993). Like the UNFCCC, this convention will also be supplemented by protocols, but it also establishes general obligations for the conservation and wise use of natural resources, for the identification and observation of biological diversity, for conservation, research and education not only in the natural environment, but also outside it, as well as obligations in the field of public education, public information and obligations to assess the environmental impact of activities that may threaten biological diversity. There are also general provisions regarding access to genetic resources and related technology, the adoption of such technology, including biotechnology, as well as international cooperation and information exchange.

Regulation of the use of international rivers
The 1992 Helsinki Convention on the Protection and Use of International Rivers and Lakes seeks to establish a framework for cooperation in monitoring and assessment, joint research and information exchange between riparian states. Such states, according to its provisions, are entrusted with the main responsibilities for the prevention, control and reduction of environmental impacts of an international scale (especially with regard to water pollution) on shared water resources. These responsibilities must be met through the use of appropriate environmental management practices, including environmental impact assessment planning and contingency planning, as well as the introduction of low-waste or no-waste technologies and the reduction of environmental pollution from point and diffuse sources.

International consequences of industrial accidents
The Convention on the International Consequences of Industrial Accidents, also signed in Helsinki in March 1992, covers the prevention of industrial accidents with international consequences, preparedness for such accidents and combating their consequences. The main obligations include cooperation and exchange of information with other parties to the convention. A detailed system of thirteen amendments to the convention establishes systems for identifying hazardous activities with international consequences, and also provides for the development of environmental impact assessment (EIA) at the international level (in accordance with the above-mentioned 1991 conference in Espoo) and the adoption of decisions on location of potentially hazardous activities. The requirements of the convention also include preparedness for emergencies and the availability of information to the public, as well as to other participants in the convention.

Conclusion
As this brief overview should have shown, over the past two decades there have been significant changes in the attitude of the world community towards nature conservation and management. In part, these changes have been reflected in a significant increase in the number and scope of international legal instruments for addressing environmental concerns. Equally important is the introduction of new principles and institutions. The polluter liability principle, the preventive principle (Churchill and Freestone 1991; Freestone and Hey 1996) and the concern for the rights of future generations (Kiss, see Freestone and Hey 1996) are all reflected in the international conventions discussed above. The role of the United Nations Environment Program and the role of the secretariats of agreements established to service and oversee the implementation of a rapidly growing number of agreements lead commentators to suggest that international environmental law, as well as, for example, international human rights law, has developed into a new, independent branch of international law. rights (Freestone 1994). UNCED played an important role in this: it outlined the main issues on the agenda - many of which still remain unresolved to the end. There is still a need for specific protocols to give substance to the framework of the Convention on Climate Change, and also (not indisputably) to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Concerns about the environmental consequences of fishing in seas outside territorial waters led in 1995 to the conclusion of the United Nations Agreement on Fish Species with Variable Habitats and Fish Species that Migratory Long Distances. In the same 1995, another UN conference was held on land-based sources of pollution of the marine environment (currently it is believed that they are the cause of more than 70% of ocean pollution). The environmental aspects of world trade, along with deforestation and desertification, are also challenges to be addressed in the future. At the same time, in the course of progress, attention is growing to human impact on the world's ecosystems. International environmental law, which is emerging before our eyes, is called upon to solve these complex problems not only by increasing the number of environmental legal instruments, but also by increasing their influence and effectiveness.